Life on the Welsh Border: Identity and Power in the Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, the border between England and Wales wasn’t marked by firm lines or stone walls but was a fluid space where people, cultures, and allegiances shifted constantly. Far from being isolated, these borderlands were vibrant regions shaped by both Welsh traditions and the influence of English political power.

Settlers and Mixed Loyalties

Before the Normans ever conquered Wales, English settlers had already established communities in places along the borderlands. These areas hosted large English populations, living side-by-side with the Welsh. The Domesday Book even records Welsh customs in these border zones, showing just how blurred the lines really were.

For the Welsh living near the border, life meant balancing two worlds. They spoke Welsh and followed Welsh customs, but often had to answer to English kings. Their identity was not strictly Welsh or English but something in between.

Kings, Tribute, and Rebellion

From as early as the mid-sixth century, English kings claimed overlordship over parts of Wales. The kingdom of Mercia, for example, often demanded tribute from Welsh rulers but never fully controlled the land. In some cases, such as with Powys, local leaders rebelled and won back their independence. These stories are proudly remembered in Welsh monuments, such as the Pillar of Eliseg.

Later, King Alfred of Wessex and his successors received tribute or submission from southern Welsh kingdoms, such as Gwent and Glywysing, typically in exchange for protection. Crucially, Welsh rulers never gave up their titles or claims to the land. They considered their kingdoms inherited from their ancestors and not something to be signed away.

The Teulu and the English Army

Interestingly, some Welshmen living near the border joined the English king’s army. Domesday records show that when the king led a campaign into Wales, these Welshmen made up the front line. This wasn’t unlike the traditional Welsh practice of noble families supplying warriors, known as the teulu, to their local king. It was an honour to serve, whether for a Welsh or English ruler.

No "Nation of Wales"—Just People and Kin

There was no concept of a united “Wales” at this time. Although the Welsh shared a language and cultural heritage, their kingdoms were small and often divided among sons after a king’s death. For example, King Rhodri Mawr’s land was split between Anarawd and Cadell, while another son, Tudwal, was left out due to injury. This pattern repeated across generations.

Starting with Hywel Dda in the 10th century, some Welsh rulers tried to centralise power, influenced by their English counterparts. His legal reforms show a shift toward state justice, where crimes were seen not just as personal offences, but as harm against the kingdom itself.

Yet, despite trying to influence more cohesiveness among the Welsh even powerful rulers such as Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, who controlled nearly all of Wales by 1064, couldn’t hold it together after death. Unity was rare and fleeting. Instead, what defined the Welsh sense of belonging was kinship or cenedl. This system meant land belonged to the entire clan, not just one person. Even kings couldn’t override it.

A Fluid Identity

Welsh people living in border regions often followed Welsh laws and customs but pledged loyalty to the English king. They weren’t trying to become English, nor did they forget their heritage. They simply lived in a space where lines of identity were flexible, shaped more by family ties and tradition than by maps or flags.

Conclusion: Between Two Worlds

Ultimately, life along the early medieval English-Welsh border was complex. People didn’t fit neatly into national categories. They moved freely, upheld their traditions, and navigated changing political powers. Their identity was rooted in kinship, self-determination, and continuity, not in strict borders or flags.

In today’s world of fixed borders and national identities is interesting to reflect on how adaptable and fluid medieval life really was, especially in the places where cultures met.